Description and time series:

There is no existing globally comparable official dataset on the “Proportion of population who believe decision-making is inclusive and responsive, by sex, age, disability and population group.” While a large number of countries have experience with measuring external political efficacy, there is large variability in the ways NSOs and government agencies in individual countries collect data on this concept, in terms of question wording and response formats, etc. This variability poses a significant challenge for cross-country comparability of such data.
However, a number of non-official global and regional survey data producers have already incorporated the two questions for 16.7.2 reporting in their questionnaires, and are already producing the necessary data. In line with the 2017 Guiding Principles of Data Reporting and Data Sharing for the Global Monitoring of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Version 1) developed by the Committee for the Coordination of Statistical Activities (CCSA) which states that “non-official sources may be used by international organizations in compiling official statistics to reach the following objectives: …d) to construct international data series in fields which are not covered by existing official sources; and…e) to impute national data where national official data do not exist or are of proven poor quality”, it is suggested to consider using these non-official sources for countries where the NSO has not yet incorporated the two questions selected for 16.7.2. As outlined in the above-cited Guiding Principles, NSOs would need to validate this unofficial data before it is submitted to the international level for SDG reporting:
- For OECD/EU countries:
  - The European Social Survey has integrated in its core module – a core set of key questions used to generate time series to track trends over time^[11] – the two questions selected for SDG indicator 16.7.2 since 2016. The ESS was conducted in 29 European countries^[12] in its last Round 9 in 2018. The ESS is conducted every two years, which is ideal for SDG reporting.
  - The OECD Adult Skills Survey (PIAAC) is already producing data on the first question (on “having a say in what the government does”) and has committed to aligning the wording of this particular question with the formulation to be used for reporting on SDG 16.7.2. The PIAAC was run in 39 countries (incl. OECD member states and OECD ‘partners’ in other regions) in its last round, which span three waves from 2008 to 2019^[13]. However, the PIAAC in any given country is conducted only once every 10 years (with three ‘waves’ of the PIAAC survey taking place during that 10-year period, each one covering a different subset of countries).
  - Both sources are highly regarded by the OECD and the EU for their high-quality standards, and both sources are already used by the OECD in its flagship publication “How’s Life? Measuring Well-Being”.
- Globally, the World Values Survey Association pilot-tested in 2018-19 and incorporated the first question (on “having a say in what the government does”) in its standard questionnaire, and plans to also incorporate the second question starting next year.

Disaggregation:

Indicator 16.7.2 aims to measure how individual beliefs in the inclusiveness and responsiveness of the political system differ across various demographic groups, including by sex, age, disability status and nationally relevant population groups. While empirical analysis confirmed the effect of these demographic variables on self-reported levels of external efficacy, other influential variables were identified, including income and education level. Moreover, since target 16.7 focuses on ‘decision-making at all levels’, disaggregation by place of residence (by administrative region e.g. by province, state, district; urban/rural) is also important to help identify areas in a given country where people feel most excluded from decision-making.

Sex: Male/Female
Age groups: It is recommended to follow UN standards for the production of age-disaggregated national population statistics, using the following age groups: (1) below 25 years old, (2) 25-34, (3) 35-44, (4) 45-54, (5) 55-64 and (6) 65 years old and above. Since age exhibits a negative relationship with external efficacy (evidence shows that older respondents report lower levels of political efficacy than younger respondents), a particular focus should be placed on older age brackets.
Disability status: ‘Disability’ is an umbrella term covering long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder the full and effective participation of disabled persons in society on an equal basis with others^{^[14]}. If possible, NSOs are encouraged to add the Short Set of Questions on Disability developed by the Washington Group to the survey vehicle used to administer the two questions selected for 16.7.2 to disaggregate results by disability status.
Nationally relevant population groups (groups with a distinct ethnicity, language, religion, indigenous status, nationality or other characteristics): The population of a country is a mosaic of different population groups that can be identified according to racial, ethnic, language, indigenous or migration status, religious affiliation, or sexual orientation, amongst other characteristics. For the purpose of this indicator, particular focus is placed on minorities. Minority groups are groups that are numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a state, in a non-dominant position, whose members—being nationals of the state—possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population and show, even if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language.^{^[15]} While the nationality criterion included in the above definition has often been challenged, the requirement to be in a non-dominant position remains important (United Nations, 2010).^{^[16]} Collecting survey data disaggregated by population groups should be subject to the legality of compiling such data in a particular national context and to a careful assessment of the potential risks of collecting such data for the safety of respondents.
Income level: By income quintile
Education level: Primary education, Secondary education, Tertiary education
Place of residence: by administrative region e.g. by province, state, district; urban/rural

¹¹

The ESS was primarily designed as a time series that could monitor changing attitudes and values across Europe. For this reason, its questionnaire comprises a core module, containing items measuring a range of topics of enduring interest to the social sciences as well as the most comprehensive set of socio-structural ('background') variables of any cross-national survey. The exact number of items can change from round to round, but each question has a unique variable name to assist users working with data over time. ↑

¹²

The European Social Survey in its Round 9 (2018) was run in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom. ↑

¹³

In 2008-2013 (round 1), the PIAAC covered 20 OECD countries plus 3 OECD sub-entities, namely Flanders, England and Northern Ireland, and the Russian Federation; in 2012-2016 (round 2), the PIAAC covered 6 additional countries, as well as Lithuania (an OECD accession country); in 2016-19, the PIAAC is covering Ecuador, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Peru and the United States. ↑

¹⁴

UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 24 January 2007, A/RES/61/106, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/45f973632.html ↑

¹⁵

Francesco Capotorti, Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (1977). ↑

¹⁶

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Minority Rights: International Standards and Guidance for Implementation, 2010, HR/PUB/10/3, <http://www.refworld.org/docid/4db80ca52.html> ↑

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Rætta metadátur: 16.7.2